Overview
Enterprise PPM software—also called enterprise project portfolio management (EPPM) software—is a centralized platform that helps large organizations select, prioritize, fund, resource, govern, and monitor many projects and programs as one connected portfolio.
Introduction
Here is what changed in 2026. Every serious PPM tool grew an AI. Planview shipped Anvi, Planisware shipped Prisma, and ServiceNow folded status reports and risk cards into Now Assist. By the time you read this in 2027, ‘does it have AI’ is not a differentiator. Everyone checked that box.
The more important question is: ‘can the tool run Agile and Waterfall in one governed portfolio, or does it force you to pick a side?’.
For hybrid organizations, that makes the underlying PPM model even more important. Other relevant questions:
- Do the leaders need to reconcile separate boards, schedules and reports before they can see the full delivery picture?
- What portfolio data the AI can access?
- How complete that data is and which actions remain under human control?
This guide compares nine best enterprise PPM software tools for teams building their 2027 shortlist. It looks at documented Agile and predictive capabilities, mixed-method portfolio reporting, governance and pricing transparency. Also, it clearly differentiates between support within one project, support across a platform suite and support that depends on integrations.
Before getting into details, we want to be clear on how we chose these tools.
How we selected these PPM platforms
We shortlisted platforms designed for portfolio-level planning, prioritization, resource management, governance, or cross-team delivery. These are NOT just standalone task-management tools.
We assessed each product against five criteria:
- support for Agile work,
- support for traditional Waterfall and schedule-driven work,
- the ability to report mixed-method delivery in a shared portfolio view,
- portfolio governance and executive roll-up capabilities, and
- pricing transparency.
Ratings are editorial assessments based primarily on current vendor documentation, product specifications, pricing pages, and publicly available product information. Capabilities and commercial terms can vary by edition, configuration, region, and implementation.
The list is not a universal ranking. The right platform for you depends on the delivery model, existing technology stack, governance requirements, portfolio complexity, and budget.
Top enterprise PPM software at a glance
Platform | Best fit | Delivery and governance model | Governance & roll-up | Pricing model |
Planview | Large, governance-heavy enterprise portfolios | Connects Agile, predictive and hybrid work through an enterprise portfolio layer; execution may span multiple Planview products and integrations | Strong* | Quote-only |
NimbleWork | Large enterprises with heavy governance portfolios. | Supports Agile and predictive teams within the same project, with integrated planning, progress tracking and portfolio roll-up | Strong* | Published lower tiers; Enterprise quote |
Broadcom Clarity | Strategic investment, financial and resource planning | Enterprise SPM across investments, projects and products; Agile delivery can connect through the broader ValueOps environment, including Rally. | ||
Planisware | Large R&D, new-product development and phase-gate portfolios | Supports Agile, Waterfall and stage-gate planning with enterprise portfolio, resource and financial governance. | Strong* | Quote-only |
ServiceNow SPM | Organizations already operating on ServiceNow | Supports documented Waterfall, Agile and Hybrid execution types within the ServiceNow environment; some capabilities require plugins and configuration. | Strong* | Quote-only/custom |
Triskell | Configurable EPPM and strategy execution | Supports Agile, Waterfall, phase-gate and customized delivery models with configurable portfolio and strategy roll-up. | Moderate–Strong | Quote-only/custom |
Jira Align | Agile-heavy enterprises connecting strategy to delivery | Agile-first portfolio alignment with support for custom and hybrid Agile–Waterfall operating models; not a specialist CPM scheduling platform | Strong, primarily Agile* | Tiered/published in some packages; enterprise sales |
Wrike | Cross-functional enterprise work management with lighter PPM needs | Combines boards, Gantt planning, configurable workflows and portfolio reporting; advanced capacity, financial and governance depth varies by tier | Moderate* | Published lower tiers; Pinnacle and Apex by quote |
Businessmap | Enterprise portfolio visibility and strategy-to-execution alignment | Connects strategic goals, portfolios, and team workflows; supports Lean, Agile, and hybrid ways of working with connected workspaces, dependencies, and flow analytics | Strong | Published seat-based pricing; Enterprise pricing on request |
An asterisk indicates a researcher-assigned rating rather than a vendor-defined metric.
9 best enterprise PPM software for hybrid teams
These PPM software are grouped by what each tool is really built for.
Core Enterprise PPM/SPM
- Planview
- NimbleWork
- Broadcom Clarity
- Planisware
- ServiceNow SPM
- Triskell
Enterprise planning and work management alternatives
- Atlassian Align
- Wrike
- Businessmap
1. Planview
A good choice for centralized enterprise portfolio governance.
Planview gives large organizations a portfolio layer above mixed delivery teams and toolchains. Its strategic portfolio management offering connects strategy, objectives, investments, capacity, finances, roadmaps, and execution data, while teams can continue to work in Agile, predictive, or hybrid models.
Scenario planning, demand management, investment prioritization, resource planning, and portfolio reporting make it well suited to executives and PMOs that need to decide what to fund.
Planview also promotes more than 60 integrations, including Jira, Azure DevOps, GitHub, and ERP systems, though the exact workflow may span Planview Portfolios, AdaptiveWork, AgilePlace, Hub, or other products in the suite.
Best for: Large, governance-heavy enterprises that need one investment and capacity view across business units, delivery methods, and execution tools.
Trade-offs: Planview’s breadth is also its main buying risk. “Planview” is a product family, so buyers must map every requirement to a named product, module, integration, and license before comparing proposals. Expect more design, administration, and change-management work than with a lighter work-management platform.
Third-party reviews: Planview’s portfolio reviews are based mostly on its portfolio-wide visibility, investment and capacity planning, scenario modeling, customizable dashboards, and ability to act as a central system of record for strategy and execution.
But, the recurring trade-off is usability. The users describe the interface as dated or spreadsheet-heavy, with deep menus, a steep learning curve, and significant setup for roles, permissions, imports, and integrations. Some also report sluggishness with large datasets or long work breakdown structures.
Overall, the reviews portray Planview as powerful for organizations willing to invest in administration and adoption; but not as a lightweight tool.
Pricing: Quote-only. Ask for a full cost model that includes the portfolio product, execution products, integration layer, implementation, environments, training, and premium support.
2. NimbleWork
The best choice for enterprise PPM software with AI that you’re looking out for.
NimbleWork is an enterprise PPM software designed for large enterprises managing complex portfolios across business units, geographies, and delivery models. It’s absolutely suitable for organizations that do not want separate systems for Scrum teams, Kanban teams, and plan-driven projects too.
Its portfolio layer brings demand, prioritization, budgets, people, capacity gaps, and portfolio analytics into a common governance environment, giving executives and PMOs visibility into where investment and resources are committed. This combination is compelling for transformation programs where one initiative may include sprint-based product work, fixed-date implementation milestones, and portfolio-level funding controls.
The same platform supports Waterfall, Scrum, Kanban, and hybrid execution through Gantt planning, dependencies, constraints, critical-path controls, and hybrid tasks that connect iterative work to predictive plans. This allows leaders to govern funding, capacity, dependencies, and delivery centrally without forcing every team into the same methodology.
NimbleWork is a powerful contender when it comes to evaluating some of the best PPM tools. With its AI agents embedded in the workflows, the tool provides the exact delivery intelligence that you need.
Best for: Large enterprises and mid-sized organizations that want Agile and traditional delivery teams working in one configurable environment, without imposing one method on every team.
Trade-offs: The portfolio capabilities relevant to a large-enterprise evaluation sit primarily in the Enterprise tier, so the public Team and Business prices are not a useful proxy for the final PPM cost. Nimble’s main disadvantage against better-known incumbents is market visibility: it has a smaller public review footprint and may be less familiar to buying committees, even when it is competing for the same enterprise use cases.
Third-party reviews: In their reviews, NimbleWork’s users describe it as easy to learn and useful for coordinating teams, tracking work and issues, and keeping task progress visible. Implementation and day-to-day task management also receive favorable comments.
Criticism is narrower but consistent: some users want stronger reporting and data-extraction options, particularly for analyzing tracked work in Excel-style formats. The feedback is encouraging for teams that value straightforward work coordination.
Pricing: 1-month free trail. Post the trial period, ‘Team’ costs $10 per user per month for up to 50 users, while Business costs $26 per user per month for up to 200 users. Enterprise, intended for more than 200 users and advanced portfolio governance, is quote-only. NimbleWork lists annual billing and a one-month free trial.
One portfolio but different delivery methods?
If your teams use different delivery methods but leadership still needs one governed portfolio view, explore how NimbleWork connects Agile and traditional work across planning, execution, and reporting.
See how Nimble runs hybrid delivery3. Broadcom Clarity
Built for investment, financial, and resource planning at enterprise scale
Broadcom Clarity is strongest when the portfolio conversation starts with money, people, and strategic investment choices. It brings investments, projects, products, roadmaps, budgets, resources, and outcomes into a common strategic portfolio model, giving executives a clearer view of where capacity and funding are committed.
It can support mixed delivery methods, but Agile execution is often connected through Broadcom’s wider ValueOps environment, including Rally and ConnectALL, rather than managed solely inside Clarity.
That architecture works well for enterprises that want a strong financial and governance core while allowing delivery teams to keep specialist tools.
Best for: Large enterprises that prioritize strategic investment planning, financial control, resource capacity, and executive roadmaps over team-level task management.
Trade-offs: Clarity is not a plug-and-play work tracker. Configuration, data governance, operating-model design, and implementation services can be substantial. Buyers also need to define whether Rally, ConnectALL, or other ValueOps components are required to support their Agile teams and integrations.
Third-party reviews: Across the reviews, users value its depth in portfolio, financial, resource, and investment management, along with reporting and customization that support strategic planning at enterprise scale.
The most common complaints concern a steep learning curve, a complex or dated interface, slow interactions, and the amount of expertise required to configure workflows and reports. Some reviewers also want easier customization and more detailed resource-planning capabilities.
The consensus is that Clarity can provide strong governance and decision support, but the payoff depends on disciplined implementation, capable administrators, and user training.
Pricing: Quote-only and custom. Request separate prices for Clarity, any ValueOps products, non-production environments, connectors, implementation, data migration, and ongoing platform administration.
4. Planisware
The specialist choice for R&D, new product development, and stage-gate portfolios.
Planisware Enterprise combines executive portfolio selection with detailed program and project controls. Its portfolio capabilities include roadmaps, business-case scoring, budget and resource constraints, scenario comparison, NPV and expected commercial value analysis, and efficient-frontier techniques.
Below that layer, teams can use advanced Gantt, PERT, work breakdown structures, earned value management, Scrum, Kanban, SAFe, and Stage-Gate controls. This breadth is especially valuable in pharmaceuticals, aerospace, manufacturing, chemicals, and other R&D environments where experiments and Agile teams still need to pass investment gates and share scarce specialists.
Best for: Large R&D, engineering, innovation, and new-product-development portfolios with complex resources, financial models, dependencies, and formal gates.
Trade-offs: Planisware can be configured deeply, but too much customization raises testing and upgrade costs. ADNOC’s published case study says extensive customization created complexity and a significant testing burden, which led the company back toward standard features. That is a useful warning for any buyer tempted to reproduce every legacy process in the new platform.
Third party reviews: The users are positive about its scenario modeling, simulations, portfolio comparisons, funding allocation, and ability to replace disconnected spreadsheets with a governed hub for projects, resources, and financials. Its industry-specific depth is frequently valued in R&D, innovation, and regulated product-development environments.
The downside is the weight that comes with that depth: reviewers mention substantial initial setup, an enterprise-style interface, significant training needs, reports that can be difficult to digest, and gaps in historical record keeping.
In short, users see Planisware as highly capable for complex portfolios, but rarely as quick or simple to deploy.
Pricing: Quote-only. Cost depends on modules, user roles, deployment scope, integrations, implementation, and the amount of configuration. Ask the vendor to separate standard functionality from custom work in the proposal.
Related reading: 9 Best Enterprise PMO Software for Complex Projects and Cross-Functional Delivery
5. ServiceNow SPM
It makes the most sense when ServiceNow is already a strategic platform.
ServiceNow Strategic Portfolio Management (SPM) connects strategic planning, demand, roadmaps, project portfolio management, resources, and execution within the Now Platform. It supports work delivered through Waterfall, Agile, or hybrid methods and can connect to Microsoft Project, Jira, and Azure DevOps, giving portfolio leaders a common view while teams retain familiar delivery tools.
Its biggest advantage is context: organizations already using ServiceNow for IT, workflows, assets, operations, or customer processes can connect portfolio choices to operational data and governed workflows.
Best for: Enterprises already in the ServiceNow ecosystem that want portfolio planning tied to demand, operational workflows, and a shared data model.
Trade-offs: SPM can be an expensive and administration-heavy choice if ServiceNow is not already established. Capabilities may depend on licensed applications, plugins, integrations, and configuration, so buyers should insist on a requirement-to-SKU matrix. A technically successful rollout can still fail if the company uses SPM only as a project register instead of changing investment decisions.
Third-party reviews: Reviewers like having strategy, projects, priorities, progress, and portfolio reporting in one environment, saying the resulting visibility helps teams stay organized and make better prioritization decisions. The fit is particularly strong when an organization already uses the ServiceNow platform.
Negative feedback centers on the breadth and complexity of the product: the learning curve is steep, the interface is not always intuitive, configuration can require experienced administrators, and platform cost is a recurring concern.
The review pattern suggests strong enterprise coordination value, provided the buyer can absorb the implementation and governance overhead.
Pricing: Quote-only. ServiceNow directs buyers to request pricing, and an SPM license is required. Include platform prerequisites, SPM applications, integration costs, implementation, test instances, and ongoing administration when estimating total cost.
6. Triskell
The flexible EPPM option for organizations with distinctive governance models.
Triskell focuses on configurable enterprise portfolio management and strategy execution. It can connect strategy, initiatives, budgets, costs, resources, capacity, and delivery progress while accommodating Agile, Waterfall, phase-gate, or organization-specific lifecycles. 
Its integration catalog includes Jira, Azure DevOps, SAP, Power BI, and SharePoint, which lets teams keep execution tools while portfolio leaders consolidate plans and performance. This is attractive to organizations whose governance model does not fit neatly into a larger vendor’s standard template.
Best for: Organizations that want a configurable EPPM and strategy layer without buying one of the largest enterprise suites.
Trade-offs: Flexibility creates design responsibility. The customer must make clear decisions about taxonomy, approvals, measures, ownership, and reporting or the platform can become inconsistent. Triskell also has a smaller partner ecosystem and lower public review volume than the best-known vendors, so buyers should test API depth, reporting scale, regional support, and upgrade practices.
Third-party reviews: Triskell’s reviewers praise its adaptability, configurable screens and workflows, data security, portfolio and calendar visibility, and support for structured approval processes; several comments suggest it is a practical step up from large, unstable spreadsheets.
The main caution is configuration governance: access rights and permissions need to be designed carefully at the outset and can be awkward to revise later. Some feedback also frames the product as straightforward for basic project-management needs, implying that organizations pursuing a complex EPPM design should expect more deliberate setup.
Pricing: Quote-only and custom. Ask for named versus occasional-user licensing, portfolio and strategy modules, connectors, sandboxes, implementation, and support in the same commercial response
7. Jira Align
The clearest choice for Agile-at-scale strategy alignment.
Jira Align connects strategic themes and investment choices to programs, epics, features, dependencies, delivery progress, and financial health.
It supports several scaled-Agile frameworks and also permits custom or hybrid Agile–Waterfall operating models. Its natural advantage is connecting enterprise planning to delivery data from Jira, while Azure DevOps integration is also supported.
Align is built for strategy-to-execution visibility across product and technology portfolios; it is not a specialist tool for critical-path scheduling, engineering controls, or detailed stage-gate R&D management.
Best for: Agile-heavy enterprises that need executive portfolio alignment across many teams, programs, products, and value streams.
Trade-offs: The buying threshold is high. Align is sold as part of Atlassian’s Strategy Collection, not as a standalone product, and Jira Cloud Premium is a prerequisite. The collection is cloud-only, has no free trial, and some analytics capabilities require Jira Cloud Enterprise. Organizations seeking classic PPM depth may also need another system for detailed cost, resource, or CPM scheduling.
Third-party reviews: Jira Align’s customizable views, strategy-to-execution traceability, program and portfolio visibility, dependency tracking, and the ability to support data-driven decisions across many Agile teams is repeatedly valued by the users.
The recurring criticism is that gaining this visibility can add governance effort: some users report a rigid delivery experience, increased administrative overhead, integration or performance issues, and navigation complexity.
The overall picture is favorable for enterprises that prioritize cross-team alignment, but less compelling for teams that expect the portfolio layer to feel as lightweight as their delivery boards
Pricing: Atlassian lists the Strategy Collection at $77,400 per year for 1–50 users. It includes Focus, Talent, and Align, is billed annually, and requires Jira Cloud Premium; larger bands go through enterprise sales.
8. Wrike
The practical option for cross-functional work with lighter PPM requirements.
Wrike combines boards, lists, Gantt charts, dependencies, request forms, configurable workflows, dashboards, and portfolio reporting in a platform that business and technical teams can share.
Higher tiers add resource and capacity planning, budgeting, advanced reporting, business intelligence, and broader integration controls. That makes Wrike a good fit when marketing, operations, professional services, product, and IT need common planning without the weight of a governance-first PPM suite.
It can support hybrid delivery well, but it is better viewed as enterprise work management with portfolio features than as a full replacement for Planview, Clarity, or Planisware in complex financial and engineering environments.
Best for: Cross-functional enterprises that need fast adoption, flexible workflows, and useful portfolio visibility but do not require the deepest investment, stage-gate, or resource-governance controls.
Trade-offs: The features most relevant to enterprise PPM—advanced capacity planning, portfolio budgets, advanced analytics, and expanded integrations—sit in the quote-only Pinnacle and Apex tiers. Wrike’s flexibility can also produce inconsistent folders, statuses, and reports unless administrators set a clear information model. Complex scenario planning, investment optimization, and formal financial governance are not its strongest areas.
Third-party reviews: The reviewers consistently praise Wrike’s flexible workflows, dashboards, task ownership, templates, request forms, integrations, and ability to centralize communication and project information for distributed teams.
Its customization and collaboration features are the clearest strengths, but they also create friction: common complaints include a steep learning curve, a cluttered or unintuitive interface, complex configuration, excessive notifications, and missing or restricted features on lower tiers.
Some users also mention weaker mobile or offline experiences, slower performance on large workspaces, and rising costs as more seats or premium capabilities are added.
Pricing: Free is $0; Team is $10 per user per month for 2–15 users; Business is $25 per user per month for 5–200 users, with annual billing. Pinnacle and Apex are quote-only, and those are the tiers most relevant to advanced PPM evaluation.
9. Businessmap
The choice for connecting strategy to execution across hybrid portfolios.
Businessmap connects strategic objectives, portfolio initiatives, and day-to-day execution work in one environment, helping leaders see how work progresses and how it contributes to business goals. Its portfolio workspaces provide visibility into initiatives, project progress, and cross-team dependencies, while teams can manage delivery through flexible workflows that support Lean, Agile, and hybrid approaches.
It brings strategic planning and execution together through its AI Canvas. Teams can visualize strategies, brainstorm initiatives, import documents, and get insights based on the context of the work.
Best for: Mid-sized and large organizations that need portfolio-wide visibility, cross-team coordination, and a clear connection between strategic goals and operational execution.
Trade-offs: Businessmap offers a broad set of portfolio, workflow, analytics, and AI capabilities, so organizations may need time to configure workflows and establish consistent governance practices.
Third-party reviews: Users praise its flexible workflows, intuitive visual boards, portfolio visibility, and advanced analytics. Reviewers appreciate how the platform helps teams improve collaboration, identify bottlenecks, and monitor work across projects. Customer support and customization are also frequently highlighted. On the downside, some users note a learning curve due to the extensive feature set.
Pricing: Standard plan with published seat-based pricing and an Enterprise plan with custom pricing. The Standard plan includes the core platform capabilities, while Enterprise offers additional options for organizations with broader security, support, and deployment requirements.
Are there any other tools to consider?
Yes, there are. A couple of them are listed below. They did not make the core eight cut because they serve a more specialized environment or represent a different approach to portfolio management.
1. Oracle Primavera Cloud
Oracle Primavera remains an important option for construction, engineering, infrastructure and other capital-intensive portfolios. Primavera P6 is known for detailed critical-path scheduling and project controls, while Primavera Cloud adds resource, risk, portfolio and capital-planning capabilities. It also connects CPM contract schedules with Lean field-task planning.
That makes Primavera highly capable within its target environment, but it should not be treated as a general Agile-and-Waterfall enterprise PPM platform.
Best suited for: Capital projects requiring detailed schedules, baselines, risk analysis and project controls.
What to validate: Whether the organization needs general Agile portfolio management in addition to Lean construction and schedule-driven execution.
2. Celoxis
Celoxis is worth considering for mid-market and enterprise teams that need capable scheduling, portfolio reporting, resource planning, financial management and an on-premises deployment option without the footprint of a large enterprise suite.
Its published pricing is also unusual in the PPM category, making initial commercial comparisons easier. Celoxis can be particularly relevant when scheduling and resource control matter more than sophisticated strategic-investment modelling.
Best suited for: Price-conscious PMOs that need substantial PPM capabilities, scheduling and resource management.
What to validate: The depth of strategic demand management, enterprise financial governance and scaled-Agile support required by your organization.
3. Smartsheet
Smartsheet offers a flexible, familiar work-management environment that can be extended into portfolio management through Smartsheet Control Center. Control Center helps organizations standardize project creation, automate portfolio setup, aggregate reporting and manage changes across multiple projects.
Its flexibility and spreadsheet-like experience can support adoption, but deeper resource management, governance and portfolio controls may depend on additional products, premium capabilities and careful solution design.
Best suited for: Organizations wanting flexible project standardization and portfolio visibility with a familiar user experience.
What to validate: The complete product and add-on combination required for capacity planning, financial governance, portfolio reporting and executive oversight.
Let’s sum up everything we have been talking about so far.
Wrap up on the best enterprise PPM software
Choosing enterprise PPM software for 2027 is about finding the operating model that matches how your organization plans, governs and delivers work.
Planview, NimbleWork, Broadcom Clarity, Planisware and ServiceNow SPM are strong candidates for large, governance-heavy environments, but each brings a different product footprint and implementation model.
Triskell offers another configurable EPPM approach, with strategy, resources and portfolio governance at its centre.
Atlassian Align is most relevant to Agile-heavy enterprises that need stronger strategy-to-delivery alignment and support for customized or hybrid operating models. Wrike suits organizations that place greater weight on adoption, collaboration and configurable workflow than on the deepest enterprise portfolio controls.
Before choosing, ask each vendor to demonstrate the same real-world scenario: one Agile initiative and one predictive project contributing to the same portfolio.
The demo should show shared priorities, capacity, dependencies, financials, risks and executive reporting; not simply a board in one part of the product and a Gantt chart in another.
If AI is part of the decision, ask what portfolio data it can access, whether it respects existing permissions, which outputs can be traced to source data and which actions require human approval.
The best platform is ultimately the one that gives leaders a credible portfolio view without forcing every team into the same delivery method—or requiring the PMO to rebuild that view manually every reporting cycle.
See hybrid governance work at enterprise scale
Medha runs complex, multi-method product-development programs. See how they used NimbleWork to forecast progress and govern large-scale delivery across teams, improving estimation accuracy and on-time completion.
Download the Medha case studyFAQs
Enterprise project portfolio management software helps large organizations evaluate, prioritize, fund, resource, govern, and monitor multiple projects and programs as one portfolio. Unlike basic project-management tools, it gives executives and PMOs visibility into investments, capacity, dependencies, risks, financials, and delivery outcomes across the organization.
Yes, but the level of support varies. Some platforms manage Agile, Waterfall, Kanban, and hybrid work within the same environment, while others depend on separate products or integrations. Buyers should ask vendors to demonstrate an Agile initiative and a predictive project contributing to the same portfolio report, capacity plan, and executive dashboard.
The right choice depends on the organization’s operating model. Planview and Nimble suit large enterprises that need governance across mixed delivery methods. Broadcom Clarity emphasizes investment, financial, and resource planning; Planisware is strong in R&D and product-development portfolios; ServiceNow SPM fits organizations already using ServiceNow; Jira Align serves Agile-heavy enterprises; Triskell offers a configurable EPPM model; and Wrike supports cross-functional work with lighter PPM requirements.
Most enterprise PPM vendors use custom pricing based on users, modules, deployment scope, integrations, implementation, support, and training. Published entry-level prices may not include portfolio governance, financial planning, advanced resource management, or enterprise security. Compare vendors using the same requirements and request the total cost of ownership—not only the license price.
AI should be evaluated by what it can do with real portfolio data, not simply by whether the platform offers an AI assistant. Ask what project, financial, resource, and risk data the AI can access; whether it respects user permissions; how its outputs can be traced to source data; and which actions still require human review or approval.